Major amount of salt in the world. Tests in the Russian language in the Unified State Exam format

Rock salt is a sedimentary mineral consisting primarily of sodium chloride. The composition of impurities depends on the characteristics of the deposits. Why is it rock salt, and not just, for example, sodium or chloride? This name reflects the state of the mineral and human attitude towards it. In their natural state, these are truly salty stones. Then, after processing, halite, as this salt is also called, becomes just the former salty powder. It is in this form that it is called table salt.

Rock salt

Main characteristics of rock salt

The mineral halite received its scientific name in Ancient Greece. The translation of this word is ambiguous, but its meaning is two concepts - sea and salt. The chemical formula of rock salt is simple - it is NaCl as the main substance and other elements as impurities. Pure rock salt contains 61% chlorine and 39% sodium.

In its pure form, this mineral can be:

• transparent;
• opaque but translucent;
• colorless or white with signs of glassy luster.

NaCl

However, pure NaCl is rare in nature. Its deposits can have shades of colors:

• yellow and red (presence of iron oxide);
• dark - from brown to black (admixtures of decomposed organic matter, for example, humus);
• gray (clay impurities);
• blue and lilac (presence of potassium chloride).

Halite is fragile, hygroscopic and, of course, has a salty taste. The mineral dissolves well in water at any temperature, but melts only at high temperatures - not lower than 800°C. When fire melts, it turns yellow.

The crystalline structure of rock salt is a dense cube, the nodes of which contain negative chlorine ions. The octahedral voids between the chlorine atoms are filled with positively charged sodium ions. The structure of the crystal lattice is an example of ideal order - in it, each chlorine atom is surrounded by six sodium atoms, and each sodium atom is adjacent to the same number of chlorine ions.

Ideal cubic crystals in some deposits are replaced by octahedral ones. In salt lakes, crusts and druses can form at the bottom.

Origin of salt deposits

Rock salt is a mineral of exogenous origin. Salt deposits were formed during sedimentary processes in a dry and hot climate. The origin of salt deposits is associated with the slow drying of drainless salt lakes, sea bays and shallow waters.

Halite salt is formed in small quantities during soil salinization and during volcanic activity. Soil salinization occurs in arid regions. This process can develop under natural or anthropogenic conditions. Natural salinization occurs where groundwater with high salinity comes close to the surface. This water evaporates, and a salt crust forms on the soil surface. In addition, the soil can also become salinized from above, for example, during sea surges or tsunamis. In this case, a large amount of salty seawater penetrates into the lower horizons of the soil, and then evaporates, and salt is deposited on the surface.

Saline soil

A person contaminates the soil with abundant watering in arid climates. In regions where the evaporation of water from the lower layers of the soil collectively exceeds the influx of water through precipitation, the soil is highly mineralized. If you water it, evaporation also increases. As a result, minerals deposited in different soil layers come to the surface. On such soil a salt crust forms, preventing any manifestation of life.

According to its origin, rock salt is divided into the following categories:

• Self-sedimentary, which forms in evaporite basins, deposited as granular crusts and druses.
• Stone, lying in large layers between different rocks.
• Volcanic salt rock that is deposited in fumaroles, craters and lavas.
• Salt marshes, representing salt crusts on the soil surface in an arid climate.

Geography of main deposits

Halite is concentrated mainly in deposits of the Permian period. This was approximately 250-300 million years ago. At that time, a dry and hot climate formed almost everywhere in Eurasia and North America. Ponds of salt water quickly dried up, and the salt layers were gradually covered by other sedimentary rocks.

On the territory of Russia, the largest deposits of halite are located in the Urals (Solikamskoye and Iletskoye deposits), in Eastern Siberia near Irkutsk (Usolye-Sibirskoye deposit). Halite is mined on an industrial scale in the lower reaches of the Volga, as well as on the banks of the famous salt lake Baskunchak.

Lake Baskunchak

Significant halite deposits are located:

• in the Donetsk region (Artemovskoye field);
• in Crimea (Sivash region);
• in northern India in the state of Punjab;
• in the USA - the states of New Mexico, Louisiana, Kansas, Utah;
• in Iran - the Urmia field;
• in Poland - the Bochnia and Wieliczka salt mines;
• in Germany near Bernburg, where halite has blue and lilac shades;
• large salt lakes are located in western South America.

Uses of rock salt

No matter how much people criticize the use of rock salt in the food industry and in everyday life, people cannot do without this “white death”. These are not just mineral compounds, although the complex composition of rock salt in some deposits is highly valued in medicine. Salt dissolved in water or food is an increase in the number of ions, that is, positively and negatively charged particles that activate all processes occurring in the body.

However, halite has also found its use in the chemical industry. For example, the production of hydrochloric acid, sodium peroxide and other compounds that are in demand in various consumer sectors cannot be done without NaCl. The use of halite, in addition to its consumption as food, provides more than 10,000 different production processes and final consumption.

Salt

This mineral is still the most popular and cheapest preservative, helping people live from one harvest to another, transport food over long distances, and stock up on food for future use. Salt's function as a preservative continues to save people from starvation around the world.

Nowadays, sodium chloride has become one of the cheapest food products. And once upon a time there were salt riots. Convoys with this product moved under heavy security. This product was part of soldiers' rations. Perhaps the consonance between the words soldier and salt is not accidental.

Salt extraction methods

How is halite mined nowadays? Modern mining is carried out using several methods.

• Mass mining of large quantities of rock salt is carried out using the mining method, which involves extracting rock salt from sedimentary rocks. Since halite is a solid solid monolith, it must be softened at high temperature and under pressure. Special salt harvesters are used to raise salt to the surface.
• The vacuum method involves boiling minerals from water with a high level of dissolved salt concentration. To obtain brine, a well is drilled to reach the rock salt deposit. After this, clean fresh water is pumped into the subsoil. The mineral quickly dissolves in it, forming a saturated solution. After this, the brine is pumped to the surface. This is usually how salt is extracted for food and medical needs, since the brine does not contain impurities of other rocks.
• The lake method is based on the extraction of salt in open salt reservoirs. This method does not require the construction of boreholes or the construction of mines. However, the product obtained in this way requires careful cleaning, which affects the cost.
• The method of evaporating seawater has been practiced for about 2,000 years. It was popular in countries with dry and hot climates. To obtain salt from sea water, no energy sources were needed here, since the sun itself coped well with the process of evaporation of water. However, this process was very slow, so when there was a large concentration of people thirsting for salt, special heating was used.

Salt cave

The opposite of evaporation is a method practiced in regions with cold climates. The fact is that fresh water freezes faster than salt water. For this reason, the early ice in the vessel, when melted, was practically fresh water. In the remaining water, the concentration of salt increases. So from sea water it was possible to simultaneously obtain fresh water and saturated brine. Salt was boiled out of the water of the late ice quickly and with less energy consumption.

Nowadays, NaCl is a product that has become familiar. The use of sodium chloride in food is in the nature of bringing its taste to the state of sea water. This is a need for all organisms living on land.

More than 100 countries around the world engage in salt mining. The natural reserves of this soluble mineral are truly enormous - salt is found in salt lakes, natural salt brines and in the bowels of the Earth, while the depth of rock layers sometimes exceeds 5 km. Speaking in numbers, the salt reserve of the waters of the World Ocean is approximately 5 x 1016 tons. Rock salt reserves are also impressive - 3.5 x 1015 tons. Scientists have calculated that the amount of salt contained in the water of the seas and salt lakes would be enough to cover our planet with a layer 45 meters thick.

The formation of salt deposits took place over millions of years, and the history of salt mining goes back about 7 thousand years. The first information that people are engaged in salt fishing dates back to the 5th century. BC. During archaeological excavations in Austria, salt mines were discovered, where the mineral was mined already in the Bronze Age. For a long time, salt extraction was hard work and until the beginning of the 20th century it was carried out manually: shovels, picks and wheelbarrows were the only production tools.

It was possible to mechanize the process of salt extraction only in the 20s of the last century, when the first cutting machines for the construction of mines, salt harvesters and excavators appeared. Currently, the production and production of salt occurs using modern machines and equipment, which minimizes the use of manual labor. More than 180 million tons of salt are produced in the world per year, with about half of the total production coming from salt industry enterprises in the CIS, USA and China. Large salt reserves have been found in Mexico, France, India, Iraq, Turkmenistan, etc.

The history of salt mining in Russia goes back to the 11th century. AD - it was then, according to historians, that salt fishing was organized in Rus', which brought good income to the owners of saltworks. By the beginning of the 18th century. Salt making became widespread in our country by the beginning of the 19th century. Almost 350 thousand tons of salt were extracted from explored deposits per year, and by the beginning of the 20th century. this figure increased to 1.8 million tons per year.

In the vast expanses of our homeland, hundreds of salt deposits have been explored, which contain more than 100 billion tons of salt. The most famous of them are the Baskunchakskoye (Astrakhan region), Eltonskoye (Volgograd region), and Iletskoye deposits. In addition, Russia is in second place in the world after Canada in the production of potassium salts, which are mainly used for the production of potash fertilizers, which are widely in demand in agriculture.

Salt extraction methods

Today, several types of salt extraction are used, which we discuss in more detail below.

The pool method is used to extract self-settling salt formed in the water of seas and lakes. In fact, this method was suggested to people by nature itself. Its essence is simple: in estuaries, which are separated from the sea by sand spits or dunes, salt is deposited in dry and hot weather, which can be collected and sent for processing. The simple process of salt deposition made it possible to artificially reproduce it, for which purpose pools were built in ecologically clean coastal zones, communicating with the sea and with each other. As a result of exposure to the sun and wind, the salt naturally evaporated and remained at the bottom of the pool. The technology for extracting sea salt has not changed for centuries and allows us to preserve the natural composition of the product.

Solid salt, located in the bowels of our planet, forms real mountains, the base of which goes 5-8 km deep, and the peaks often protrude above the earth's surface in the form of salt domes. Their formation occurs as a result of the influence of interlayer pressure and temperature on the rock salt mass. Becoming plastic, the salt monolith slowly moves upward to the surface of the earth, where rock salt is mined. If its deposits are located at a depth of 100 to 600 meters, then mining is carried out using the shaft method.

The mine itself resembles a long tunnel, the walls of which are made of natural salt. It is located in the thickness of the salt layer or dome. Branching off from the main corridor are many galleries or chambers, which are built using special cutting machines or road boring machines. Scraper installations are used to extract and load the produced salt, and to facilitate transportation, the resulting pieces of salt are cut into smaller pieces and sent to the processing plant on special elevators or trolleys along the mine railway. There the salt is ground and packaged, after which the finished product goes to stores. The degree of grinding, packaging and additives may be different; the end consumer chooses the best option for himself. Salt enriched with iodine is of high consumption - it is recommended for use as a prophylactic for iodine deficiency diseases.

The process of extracting salt using the mine method does not depend on the time of year and is carried out continuously. It is estimated that more than 60% of all salt in the world is extracted this way. The efficiency of exploitation of spent salt deposits is increased due to the fact that spent chambers are often used to dispose of waste from industrial enterprises. Among the disadvantages, it is worth noting the high probability of a salt mine collapse and its possible flooding, which leads to serious environmental and economic losses.

Another method of extracting rock salt is called in-situ leaching. Depending on the thickness and depth of the salt formation in the field, a network of wells is laid into which fresh hot water is pumped, dissolving the salt rock. The liquefied brine solution is pumped out using slurry pumps. The need to use equipment that is resistant to chemical and mechanical influence is determined by the aggressive environment of the solution (the salt concentration in it is very high) and the content of sharp and solid particles in it.

Entering huge vacuum tanks with reduced pressure, the brine solution begins to evaporate and salt crystals settle to the bottom. Grind the resulting salt using a centrifuge. This method of extracting table salt, which is also called vacuum, has a number of advantages, including the low cost of brine, the possibility of extracting the product in deep deposits (from 2 km), a minimum of human resources, etc.

The process of salt extraction is often not complete without salt harvesters. This technique, which resembles a double-decker carriage, moves along a railway laid at the site of salt extraction and, using a cutter, loosens the dense salt structure. The mineral mixed with lake water is pumped out by special pumps and enters the processing chamber. The devices located in it separate the salt from the liquid and wash it, after which the finished raw materials are loaded into cars, which drive up to the combine on special rails. The productivity of the salt harvester reaches 300 tons of salt per hour. Combine mining of salt makes it possible to almost completely eliminate drilling and blasting operations. The thickness of the salt layers that the combine can process ranges from 1 to 8 meters

Similar salt harvesters are used on Lake Baskunchak. Salt mining at this largest deposit, located in the Astrakhan region, has been carried out since the 17th century, and it produces more than 930 tons of salts per year. Baskunchak is a unique deposit, because it is one of the few that is capable of restoring lost reserves from the sources that feed the lake. The discovered salt layers at the site of the lake go deep up to 10 km.

If we talk about small salt mining enterprises, they extract lake salt using excavators. However, unlike salt mining combines, which destroy, collect, enrich, dehydrate and load the extracted mineral into railway cars or dump cars, the operation of excavators has a number of limitations. These include a significant level of brine in the lake and karstification of salt layers. The feasibility of extracting salt using the excavator method is acceptable if the production volume does not exceed 80 thousand tons per year.

Exercise 1.

(1) The solemn (rhetorical) style aims to evoke in listeners or readers a feeling of respect for the greatness of the events and personalities described. (2) It finds a place both in journalism and in works of art, less often in general assessments of the achievements of science and cultural figures. (3) In terms of language, it is characterized by<...>, widespread use of vocabulary with emotional overtones, vivid imagery, processed syntax with features of orderliness, rhythm, and symmetry of syntactic elements.

1) The solemn (rhetorical) style found in journalism and fiction, which is characterized by linguistic expressiveness, is intended to evoke respect among readers and listeners for the events and personalities described.

2) Solemn (rhetorical) style is characteristic of scientific texts, the main task of which is to use emotional and figurative vocabulary in order to evoke in readers a feeling of admiration for science.

3) In a solemn (rhetorical) style, the use of emotionally charged, figurative vocabulary and ordered syntax delights readers and listeners.

4) The greatness of events and personalities must be conveyed in a solemn (rhetorical) style in order to use a variety of expressive means of language.

5) The solemn (rhetorical) style, characterized by linguistic expressiveness and found mainly in fiction and journalism, aims to evoke respect among readers and listeners for the greatness of what is being described.

Task 2.

(1) Nasal vowels, characteristic of the phonetic system of the Old Church Slavonic language, where they were designated by special letters - Ѫ (о nasal) and Ѧ (е nasal), and preserved to this day in the Polish and Kashubian languages, were once characteristic of all Slavic languages. (2) Having been formed back in the Proto-Slavic period, they subsequently in all Slavic languages, except Polish and Kashubian, at different times suffered loss, transition to non-nasal pure ones. (3)<...>The change from nasal vowels to non-nasal vowels was not the same in Slavic languages, which suggests that their pronunciation was different in different Slavic languages.

Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) The phonetic system of the Old Church Slavonic language was characterized by nasal vowels, which were designated by special letters - Ѫ (о nasal) and Ѧ (е nasal).

2) The change from nasal vowels to non-nasal vowels in Slavic languages ​​occurred approximately the same way, which once again confirms the idea of ​​the existence of a Proto-Slavic language - the ancestor of all Slavic languages.

3) The process of transition of nasal vowels, which existed in all Slavic languages ​​and survived only in Polish and Kashubian, into non-nasal vowels was not the same, which indicates different pronunciation of nasal vowels in different Slavic languages.

4) Nasal vowels have been preserved to this day only in two Slavic languages: Polish and Kashubian, which inherited the phonetic system of the Old Church Slavonic language.

5) The pronunciation of nasal vowels, lost in all Slavic languages, except Polish and Kashubian, was not the same, as evidenced by the difference in the change from nasal vowels to non-nasal vowels in Slavic languages.

Task 3.

(1) Corals are not plants, but animals that can be found only in certain areas of the World Ocean, mainly in shallow tropical seas. (2) Corals are unevenly distributed -<...>They are very demanding; their existence requires special conditions: a certain salinity of water and a temperature not lower than 20.5°C. (3) Wherever such conditions are provided and the sea depth is shallow, reef-building corals can begin to build their structures.

Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) Reef-forming corals are plants that are unevenly distributed in zones of the World Ocean due to the requirement of special conditions for existence.

2) Reef-building corals are animals that begin to build their structures only under certain conditions at shallow depths of the sea, so their distribution area is uneven.

3) A certain water temperature and sufficient salinity provide reef-forming corals with life in all zones of the World Ocean, facilitating their reproduction.

4) The distribution area of ​​reef-forming corals is uneven, because these animals begin to build their structures only under certain conditions where the sea depth is shallow.

5) The uniform distribution of coral reefs in the World Ocean is associated with the presence of certain conditions for the existence of these animals at great depths.

Task 4.

(1) Modern science considers artistic creativity not in itself, but in the context of cultural and personal communications. (2)<...>the very nature of artistic creativity compels. (3) After all, turning to works of art, to the creative process, to the concept of a particular work, we enter into a dialogue - a dialogue of cultures, a dialogue of consciousnesses, in which there are three participants: the artist, the work itself and the one who perceives the work (reader, viewer, listener).

Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) Consideration of artistic creativity in the context of cultural and personal communications is due to the very nature of creativity as a dialogue between the one who perceives the work, the artist who created it, and the work itself.

2) The reader, viewer, listener, obeying the very nature of artistic creativity, considers any work of art in the context of cultural and personal communications.

3) The concept of the work helps the reader, viewer, listener to enter into a dialogue with the author of the work of art.

4) When turning to works of art, to the creative process, to the concept of a particular work, a dialogue of cultures, a dialogue of consciousnesses occurs.

5) The very nature of artistic creativity forces science to consider creativity not in isolation, but in the context of cultural and personal communications between the artist, the work itself and those who perceive this work.

Task 5.

(1) The bulk of salt in the world is extracted not from sea water, but in salt mines deep underground; underground salt is called rock salt. (2) Its formation dates back to distant times (225-185 million years ago), when the area of ​​the seas was shrinking and land was advancing: closed lagoons dried up, and the evaporated salt formed thick deposits. (3) Huge layers of crystalline salt were covered over time with layers of various rocks,<...>the salt ended up hundreds of meters underground.

1) The formation of rock salt, from which the bulk of salt in the world is extracted, dates back to ancient times, when the area of ​​the seas was reduced; Over time, thick deposits of evaporated salt were covered with layers of various rocks.

2) The production of rock salt exceeds in volume the production of sea salt, which, when evaporated, forms thick deposits in salt mines.

3) Table salt in ancient times was mined deep underground, in closed lagoons, which in our time have been converted into salt mines.

4) In ancient times, the area of ​​the seas decreased, and the evaporated salt formed thick deposits, which were covered over time with layers of various rocks; This underground salt, called rock salt, is the world's main source of salt.

5) Huge layers of crystalline salt, formed in ancient times and called “rock salt,” are evaporated for about two hundred million years in salt mines located hundreds of meters underground.

Task 6.

(1) The scientific style belongs to the number of book styles of a literary language, which are characterized by a number of general operating conditions and linguistic features: preliminary consideration of the statement, its monological nature, strict selection of linguistic means, and a tendency towards standardized speech. (2) This style of speech has features that appear regardless of the nature of the sciences themselves (natural, exact, humanities) and differences between genres of statement (monograph, scientific article, report, textbook, etc.), which makes it possible to talk about the specifics of the style generally. (3) At the same time, it is quite natural that,<...>, texts on physics, chemistry, mathematics differ markedly in the nature of presentation from texts on philology or history.

Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) The scientific style of speech has features that appear regardless of the nature of the sciences themselves and the differences between genres of statement.

2) Along with common features determined by the specifics of scientific style, texts from different scientific fields have differences in the nature of presentation.

3) Texts from the exact and natural sciences differ significantly from texts from the humanities, primarily in the nature of their presentation.

4) Texts of the scientific style have both common features determined by the specifics of the scientific style, and features associated with a specific scientific field.

5) The scientific style belongs to the book styles of the literary language, which determines a number of general conditions for its functioning and linguistic features.

Task 7.

(1) In the middle of the 16th century, potatoes were brought from South America to Spain, and from there the tubers of this plant spread throughout Europe. (2)<...>At first, the exotic plant was grown for its flowers and for a long time the value of potatoes as a food product was not understood. (3) This happened due to the fact that they tried to use green, small and poisonous fruits for food, and they paid attention to tubers much later.

Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) Potatoes, brought to South America from Europe, were not initially used as a food product, since people tried to taste the small poisonous fruits and did not pay attention to the tubers.

2) Potato tubers, brought from South America to Europe in the mid-16th century, immediately began to be used as a food product, and later attention was paid to the beauty of its flowers.

3) Potatoes, brought in the middle of the 16th century from South America to Europe, were not used for food at first, since they tried green fruits, and not tubers, which they paid attention to later.

4) Potato tubers are poisonous, so this plant was not used as a food product in South America, but flowers became very popular in Europe.

5) The value of potatoes, brought to Europe from South America in the mid-16th century, was not immediately realized, since at first they tried to use the green fruits of this plant for food, and not the tubers.

Task 8.

(1) Our planet Earth is unique, and primarily because there is life on it, traces of which were discovered in rocks over a billion years old. (2)<...>more than a billion years ago, life already existed on the planet, there was an atmosphere and a hydrosphere. (3) But our close “relatives”, other planets of the terrestrial group: Mercury, Venus and Mars, although they are similar to planet Earth, but, unlike it, are lifeless.

Task 1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) The uniqueness of the Earth lies primarily in the fact that, unlike other terrestrial planets, there is life on it that arose over a billion years ago.

2) Traces of the first living organisms discovered in rocks indicate that life on the terrestrial planets began more than a billion years ago.

3) Along with the Earth, three more planets of the solar system are classified as terrestrial planets: Mercury, Venus and Mars, since they are more favorable for the emergence of life than they are similar to Earth.

4) Despite the general similarity with Mercury, Venus and Mars, the Earth differs from them in the presence of a hydrosphere, which arose more than a billion years ago.

5) Planet Earth is unique primarily because life has existed on it for more than a billion years, which does not exist on other terrestrial planets.

Task 9.

(1) During experiments, scientists found that learning new words stimulates the activity of the striatum (striatum), an important part of the brain that is directly related to motivation. (2) The striatum itself is not associated with the language function: it does not decipher the meanings of words and does not remember them; for this there are special linguistic centers in the cerebral cortex. (3)<...>it reinforces the motivation to learn a language by responding to linguistic efforts with a feeling of pleasure: pleasant emotions help to remember new material.

Task 1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) When learning new words, a person experiences pleasant emotions, which is due, according to scientists, to the action of the striatum - an important part of the brain that reinforces the motivation to memorize new material.

2) During the experiments, scientists discovered that the striatum (striatum) is an important part of the brain that is directly related to motivation.

3) Scientists were able to prove that the striatum has no relation to the language function, since it does not decipher the meanings of words and does not remember them - for this there are special linguistic centers in the cerebral cortex.

4) Mastering new words, according to scientists, stimulates the activity of an important part of the brain - the striatum, which reinforces the motivation to learn a language with pleasant emotions.

5) Having studied the data obtained by scientists during experiments, we can assume: the pleasure of mastering new words was the reason that humanity learned to use speech.

Task 10.

(1) The goal of science is to find objective laws of nature, and therefore the result should not depend on the personal qualities of the scientist. (2) However, each scientist has his own research style, his own approach to solving the problems facing him: one physicist can become an example of a theorist, another works with deliberately simplified models of a phenomenon, a third builds a theory of such phenomena that reveal the deepest properties of the physical world, etc. d. (3)<...>The individuality of a scientist manifests itself in the same way as the individuality of an architect striving for a common goal within the framework of solving his utilitarian problem.

Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) A scientist is like an architect: both, while maintaining individuality, strive for internal harmony with nature.

2) Scientists, having an individual research style and having their own approaches to solving the issues facing them, work on a common task - finding objective laws of nature.

3) Finding objective laws of nature is a task facing scientists who show individuality in achieving the overall result of their activity.

4) The result of scientists’ activities should not depend on their personal qualities, therefore in science it is unacceptable to have your own style and your own approach to solving certain problems.

5) The individuality of scientists is manifested in the fact that one physicist becomes an example of a theorist, another works with simplified models of a phenomenon, a third builds a theory about the deep properties of the physical world.

World resources (including reserves) of potassium salts at the end of the twentieth century. (1998) amounted to 250 billion tons in terms of K2O. Most of them are concentrated in Canada, Russia, Belarus, the USA, Germany, as well as in Thailand and China. The total reserves of potassium salts in the world are estimated at 24.2 billion tons, confirmed - at 7.3 billion tons. The US Geological Survey estimates the world confirmed reserves of potassium salts at 8.4 billion tons. The main amount of reserves of potassium salts, both general and confirmed deposits in Canada, Russia, Germany, and Belarus. Israel and Jordan have significant common reserves.

Reserves of potassium salts at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries. (million tons in terms of K 2 O) and average K 2 O content in ores (%)

Continents and countries	Confirmed stocks	Share in the world,%	content	general reserves
Europe	1223	16,2	...	1854
Belarus	309	4,1	16	513
Germany	720	9,6	14	1000
Asia (without Russia)	479	6,4	...	1746
Russia	1220	16,2	7,8	6790
Israel	42	0,6	1,4	600
Jordan	42	0,6	1,4	600
China	320	4,2	1,5	396
Thailand	75	1,0	25	150
Africa	63	0,8	...	142
Tunisia	19	0,3	1,5	34
Ethiopia	42	0,6	25	105
America	4545	60,4	...	14910
Brazil	50	0,7	15	160
Canada	4400	58,4	23	14500
Mexico	...	0	12	10
USA	70	0,9	12	170
together	7530	100	...	25442

In Canada More than 90% of proven potash reserves are concentrated within the Saskatchewan potash basin in the province of Saskatchewan. The Moncton potassium basin in the extreme southeast of the country (New Brunswick province) is of less practical importance. In the Saskatchewan Basin, potassium salt deposits are confined to the upper part of the Middle Devonian salt-bearing Prairie Evaporite Formation. The main potassium mineral is sylvite, the minor one is carnallite. The horizons that are being exploited are about 25 m thick and lie at a depth of more than 1000 m. The average K 2 O content is 23%. All deposits are mined using the underground method, with the exception of Belle Plaine, where mining is carried out using the underground solution method. In the Moncton basin, potassium salts occur in the strata of middle and late fossiliferous age and are mined in the depth range of 600-1000 m. The main rock-forming mineral is sylvite. The average K 2 O content in ores is 23-28%.

In Russia approximately 95% of confirmed reserves of potassium salts are accounted for by one deposit - Verkhnekamskoye in the Perm region. The main potassium minerals are sylvite and carnallite. Potassium salts are mined at depths of 250-350 m using the mine method. The average K2O content in ores is significantly lower than in Canadian deposits, about 17%.

IN THE USA potassium salts in the states of Montana and North Dakota, within the Saskatchewan (Canada) basin. The ores lie relatively deep - in the range from 1830 m to 3050 m. The resources of potassium salts in the country are estimated at 6 billion tons.

Salt comes in different tastes, sizes, shapes, colors and degrees of salinity. It all really depends on where she comes from. It is impossible to cover all the many types of salt, but the editor of the “Food” section of The Village, Anna Maslovskaya, decided to look into the issue and classify the main ones.

Origin

Sea salt is extracted from sun-concentrated brine that forms in areas where salt water floods. It is scraped off, dried, and sometimes recrystallized. Another way to obtain sea salt is by freezing. Not evaporation of water, but placing sea water in the cold.

Sad salt is obtained in a similar way to sea salt: by evaporating water from underground salt springs or by evaporating water in salt marshes. In these places, salt water stagnates on the surface of the earth, but does not come from the sea, but from other sources.

Rock salt, also known as mineral salt, is mined in mines. It is formed due to the flow of saline sources or, for example, in the place of dried up seas. Until recently, along with boiled sea salt, mineral salt was the most popular in the world.

Salt, depending on the method of its extraction, is then either ground or sifted. Thus, they divide it by caliber: from small to large.

Fine table salt

It's table salt. As a rule, it is of stone or cage origin. The second option is considered the cleanest. It is obtained by repeated recrystallization of brine and, apart from salt, contains little in itself - white table salt has a purity of at least 97%. While stone can contain a significant amount of impurities that affect the taste. When sifting it, you can find microscopic pieces of clay and stones. In Russia, the largest places for producing table salt are Lake Baskunchak in the Astrakhan region and Lake Elton in the Volgograd region.

Table salt has the purest salty taste, this is both its advantage and disadvantage. The main advantage is that it allows you to accurately dose the amount during preparation. The downside is that its taste is flat and one-dimensional. Table salt is one of the cheapest types of salt, along with mineral salt.

Kosher salt

A special case of ordinary table salt. It differs in that the size of its granules is larger than that of ordinary salt, and the shape of the crystals is different. Not cubes, but granules, flat or pyramidal in shape, obtained through a special evaporation process. The shape makes it easier to feel the amount of salt with your fingers, which is why in America, where it is produced in large quantities, it has become an industry standard in professional kitchens. The taste is almost no different from ordinary table salt, but there is a nuance: it is never iodized.

Salt is called kosher because it is used for koshering meat, that is, rubbing the carcass to remove residual blood.

Rock salt

Iranian blue salt

Table edible rock salt, grind No. 1

This is a large family, most often the name of which refers to white table salt mined in a mine. For example, salt extracted from the Artyomovskoye deposit in Ukraine, the supply of which to Russia is now limited due to sanctions. As a rule, it is white, but sometimes has a slightly gray or yellowish tint. Salts with brighter impurities often acquire their own names. For example, black Himalayan salt, which will be discussed below. Rock salt is also used for technical purposes - for example, to salt a swimming pool or sprinkle a road.

Sea salt

Sea iodized salt from the Adriatic Sea

Hawaiian Sea Salt Black Lava

There are many types of it due to its origin. Since all seas have different chemical profiles, this is reflected in the taste and composition of the salt. Sometimes this salt is recrystallized to obtain pure table salt. Its value lies in the variety of tastes and the presence of additional impurities that enrich the taste.

Fleur de sel

Fleur de sel from Lake Reux

Swedish salt flakes

Flaked salt is highly valued by both chefs and ordinary consumers. Depending on its origin, it differs in shape, appearance, humidity and degree of salinity. Its traditional name is fleur de sel. As a rule, this is sea salt, the crystals of which grow on the edges of the salt baths, in the process of slow evaporation of water they become overgrown with beautiful growths, which, as a rule, are collected by hand at a certain stage of growth. That is, from the same source you can get both coarse salt and salt flakes.

Salt is mined in flake form in a variety of places around the world, but there are three best known deposits: salt from the French island of Reux, Maldon salt from the southeast of England, and salt mined from a large deposit in Portugal.

Maldon is a very famous fleur de sel salt, mined in the Maldon area of ​​Essex in south-east England since the late 19th century. It is correct to say “Maldon”, although “Maldon” has already taken root in Russia. Moldon salt is a separate type of salt, which differs from fleur de sel in that its crystals are larger, up to a centimeter. It is also slightly saltier than the classic fleur de sel. Being sea salt and having a shape in the form of flat crystals, it is delicate and creates a pleasant sensation, exploding on the tongue with salty sparkles. This makes Moldon salt a versatile finishing agent for dishes.

Black Himalayan salt

Pink Himalayan salt

Coarsely ground mineral salt, the color of which is due to the presence of impurities of potassium chloride and iron oxide. In total, salt contains about 5% of all kinds of impurities. It is used in hand mills to finish dishes, that is, not only for salting the dish, but also for decoration.

Pink Himalayan salt is mined in large blocks, which are then cut out, in the Punjab region, mainly in the troughs of the Himalayas, in Pakistan and India. Salt blocks are even used for interior work.

Pink Hawaiian salt

Sedimentary sea salt that was first collected in Hawaii. Now its main production takes place in California. The bright pink-brown color of medium-sized salt crystals is given by clay inclusions. Expensive product with a slightly iron taste. According to some reports, it is considered especially useful. But what you can’t argue with is that it’s beautiful, which makes it ideal for serving dishes.

Interesting fact

In foreign literature, the term “pink salt” refers to a special product based on salt with the addition of sodium nitrite, used for the production of meat products.

Flavored salts

Black Thursday salt

There are many types of aromatic salts, and all of them are invented and made by man. Such salt can be of any origin, the main thing in it is the combination of two functions: salting a dish with its flavoring. To do this, additives are placed in the salt or the necessary manipulations are performed on the salt itself, for example, smoking. Additives can be anything: flowers, spices, herbs, berries and even wine.

Thursday salt stands apart on this list because it is the result of rather complex manipulations. Initially, this salt was ritual (like pink Hawaiian salt), but now it is more often used because of its unusual taste. This salt is prepared as follows: table salt is mixed in equal proportions with leaven grounds or rye bread soaked in water; they put it in the oven (sometimes burying it in ashes), oven, or heat it in a frying pan. Afterwards, the monolithic piece is split and pounded in a mortar.

Interesting fact

Charcoal salt is used in many culinary traditions, such as in Japan and Korea. Just like the Thursday one, it is made by human hands. A similar example from Korea is bamboo salt: mOrsk salt is literally baked in bamboo.