Alexander 3 father of Nicholas 2. Alexander III and Maria Fedorovna

On February 26, 1845, the third child and second son were born to the future emperor, Tsarevich Alexander Nikolaevich. The boy was named Alexander.

Alexander 3. Biography

During the first 26 years, he was brought up, like other great dukes, for a military career, as his elder brother Nikolai was to become the heir to the throne. By the age of 18, Alexander III was already in the rank of colonel. The future Russian emperor, according to the reviews of his educators, did not differ much in the breadth of his interests. According to the teacher's recollections, Alexander the Third "was always lazy" and began to make up for lost time only when he became the heir. An attempt to fill the gaps in education was carried out under the close supervision of Pobedonostsev. At the same time, from the sources left by the educators, we learn that the boy was distinguished by perseverance and diligence in calligraphy. Naturally, excellent military specialists, professors of Moscow University were engaged in his education. The boy was especially fond of Russian history and culture, which eventually grew into real Russophilia.

Members of his family sometimes called Alexander a slow-witted person, sometimes because of excessive shyness and clumsiness - “pug”, “bulldog”. According to the recollections of contemporaries, outwardly he did not look like a heavyweight: well built, with a small antennae, a receding hairline that appeared early. People were attracted by such traits of his character as sincerity, honesty, benevolence, lack of excessive ambition and a great sense of responsibility.

The beginning of a political career

His serene life ended when his elder brother Nikolai suddenly died in 1865. Alexander the Third was declared heir to the throne. These events stunned him. He immediately had to take up the duties of the crown prince. His father began to introduce him to state affairs. He listened to the reports of ministers, got acquainted with official papers, received membership in the State Council and the Council of Ministers. He becomes major general and chieftain of all the Cossack troops of Russia. That's when we had to make up for the gaps in youth education. His love for Russia and Russian history formed the course of Professor S.M. Solovyov. accompanied him all his life.

Tsarevich Alexander the Third stayed for quite a long time - 16 years. During this time, he received

Combat experience. Participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, received the Order of St. Vladimir with swords "and" St. George of the 2nd degree ". It was during the war that he met people who later became his associates. Later, he created the Volunteer Fleet, which in peacetime was transport, and in wartime - combat.

In his internal political life, the Tsarevich did not adhere to the views of his father, Emperor Alexander II, but he did not oppose the course of the Great Reforms either. His relationship with his parent was complicated and He could not come to terms with the fact that his father, with his wife alive, settled in the Winter Palace his favorite, E.M. Dolgoruky and their three children.

The Tsarevich himself was an exemplary family man. He married the bride of his deceased brother Princess Louise Sophia Frederica Dagmara, who after the wedding adopted Orthodoxy and a new name - Maria Fedorovna. They had six children.

A happy family life ended on March 1, 1881, when a terrorist act was committed, as a result of which the Tsarevich's father died.

Reforms of Alexander III or transformations necessary for Russia

On the morning of March 2, members of the State Council and the highest ranks of the court took the oath to the new emperor Alexander III. He announced that he would try to continue the work started by his father. But for a long time the most firm idea of ​​what to do next did not appear. Pobedonostsev, an ardent opponent of liberal reforms, wrote to the monarch: "Either now save yourself and Russia, or never!"

The most accurate political course of the emperor was set forth in the manifesto of April 29, 1881. Historians nicknamed him "the Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy." It meant major adjustments to the Great Reforms of the 1860s and 1870s. The primary task of the government was to fight the revolution.

The repressive apparatus, political investigation, secret search services, etc. were strengthened. To contemporaries, government policy seemed cruel and punitive. But to those who live in the present, she may seem very modest. But now we will not dwell on this in detail.

The government tightened its policy in the field of education: universities were deprived of autonomy, a circular “On cook's children” was issued, a special censorship regime was introduced regarding the activities of newspapers and magazines, and zemstvo self-government was curtailed. All these transformations were carried out to eliminate that spirit of freedom,

That hovered in

The economic policy of Alexander III was more successful. The industrial and financial sphere was aimed at introducing gold security for the ruble, establishing a protectionist customs tariff, building railways, which created not only the communication routes necessary for the domestic market, but also accelerated the development of local industries.

The second successful area was foreign policy. Alexander the Third received the nickname "Emperor-Peacemaker". Immediately after accession to the throne, he sent out a dispatch in which it was announced: the emperor wants to keep peace with all powers and to focus his special attention on internal affairs. He professed the principles of a strong and national (Russian) autocratic power.

But fate gave him a short century. In 1888, the train in which the emperor's family was traveling, suffered a terrible wreck. Alexander Alexandrovich found himself crushed by the collapsed ceiling. Having tremendous physical strength, he helped his wife and children and got out on his own. But the trauma made itself felt - he developed a kidney disease, complicated after "influenza" - the flu. 10/29/1894 he died before he was 50 years old. He told his wife: "I feel the end, be calm, I am completely calm."

He did not know what trials his beloved Motherland, his widow, his son and the entire Romanov family would have to endure.

Alexander III is a Russian emperor who ascended the throne after the murder of his father by terrorists in 1881, and ruled until his death in 1894. Unlike his predecessor, the king adhered to conservative and nationalist views in politics. After the beginning of his reign, he almost immediately began to carry out counter-reforms. He paid a lot of attention to the development and modernization of the Russian army, but during the years of his reign the country did not take part in wars. For this, the emperor was nicknamed the peacemaker after his death. He was a decent family man, an extremely religious and hardworking person.

We will tell in this article in more detail about the biography, politics and personal life of the penultimate Russian tsar.

Birth and early years

It is noteworthy that initially the future Emperor Alexander III was not supposed to inherit the throne. His fate was not in the management of the state, and therefore they prepared him for another case. His father Alexander II already had an eldest son, Tsarevich Nicholas, who grew up a healthy and intelligent child. It was assumed that it was he who would become king. Alexander himself was only the second son in the family, he was born 2 years later than Nicholas - on February 26, 1845. Therefore, according to tradition, from early childhood, he was prepared for military service. Already at the age of seven, he received his first officer's rank. At the age of 17, he was rightfully enrolled in the Emperor's Retinue.

Like other great dukes from the Romanov family, Alexander III received a traditional military engineering education. He was trained by Professor Chivilev, who worked at Moscow University and was, according to his education, a historian and economist. At the same time, contemporaries recalled that the little grand duke was not distinguished by a craving for knowledge, he could be lazy. His parents did not force him too much, thinking that his older brother would take the throne.

Outstanding for the members of the imperial family was the appearance of Alexander. From an early age he was distinguished by good health, a dense physique and high growth - 193 cm. The young prince loved art, was fond of painting, took lessons in playing wind instruments.

Alexander - heir to the throne

Unexpectedly for everyone, Tsarevich Nikolai felt unwell during his trip to Europe. For several months he was treated in Italy, but his health only worsened. In April 1865, Nikolai died of tuberculous meningitis, he was 21 years old. Alexander, who has always been on excellent terms with his older brother, was shocked and depressed by the event. He not only lost a close friend, but now had to inherit the throne after his father. He came to Italy with Nikolai's fiancee, Princess Dagmara from Denmark. They found the Tsarevich already dying.

The future Tsar Alexander 3 was not trained in government. Therefore, he urgently needed to master several disciplines at once. In a short time, he completed a course in history, as well as law. He was taught by the jurist K. Pobedonostsev, who was a supporter of conservatism. He was also appointed mentor of the newly made Tsarevich.

By tradition, the future Alexander 3, as an heir, traveled across Russia. Subsequently, his father began to introduce him to government. The Tsarevich was also promoted to major general, and in 1877-78 he commanded his detachment during the Russian-Turkish war.

Marriage to a Danish princess

Initially, Alexander II planned to marry his eldest son and heir Nicholas to the Danish princess Dagmar. During his trip to Europe, he specially visited Denmark, where he asked for her hand in marriage. They were also engaged there, but did not have time to get married, since a few months later the Tsarevich died. The death of his older brother brought the future Emperor Alexander III closer to the princess. For several days they took care of the dying Nikolai and became friends.

However, at that time Alexander was deeply in love with Princess Maria Meshcherskaya, who was a maid of honor at the imperial court. They met in secret for several years, and the crown prince even wanted to renounce the throne in order to marry her. Because of this, a major quarrel broke out with his father Alexander II, who insisted that he go to Denmark.

In Copenhagen, he proposed to the princess, and she agreed. Their engagement took place in June and their wedding took place in October 1866. The newly-made wife of Alexander 3 converted to Orthodoxy before the wedding and received a new name - Maria Fedorovna. After the wedding, which took place in the Great Church, located on the territory of the emperor's residence, the couple spent some time in the Anichkov Palace.

Father's assassination and accession to the throne

Tsar Alexander III ascended the throne on March 2, 1881 after the sudden death of his father, who was killed by terrorists. They had made attempts on the emperor's life before, but they were unsuccessful. This time the explosion turned out to be fatal, and the emperor died on the same day, several hours later. The event greatly shocked the public and the heir himself, who seriously feared for his family and his own life. And not in vain, because during the first years of his reign, the revolutionaries continued to arrange attempts on the life of the tsar and his entourage.

The deceased Emperor Alexander II was distinguished by liberal views. It is known that on the day of his murder, he planned to approve in Russia the first constitution developed by Count Loris-Melikov, but his heir did not support this idea. In the early days of his reign, he abandoned liberal reforms. The terrorists involved in organizing the assassination of his father were arrested and executed by order of the new king.

The coronation of Alexander III took place 2 years after his accession to the throne - in 1883. Traditionally, it was held in Moscow in the Assumption Cathedral.

Domestic policy of the new king

The newly-made tsar immediately abandoned his father's liberal reforms, choosing the path of counterreforms. Their ideologist was the former mentor of the tsar, Konstantin Pobedonostsev, who now held the post of chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod.

He was distinguished by extremely radical conservative views, which were supported by the emperor himself. In April 1881, Alexander signed a manifesto drawn up by his former mentor, which indicated that the tsar was deviating from the liberal course. After his release, most of the free-minded ministers were forced to resign.

The new government considered the reforms of Alexander II ineffective and even criminal. They believed that counter-reforms were needed to eliminate the problems caused by liberal changes.

The internal politics of Alexander III included a revision of many of his father's transformations. The changes affected the following reforms:

• peasant;
• judicial;
• educational;
• zemstvo.

In the 1880s, the tsar began to support the landowners who became poorer after the abolition of serfdom. In 1885, the Noble Bank was created, which is engaged in subsidizing them. By decree of the tsar, restrictions on the redistribution of peasant plots are introduced, it is becoming more and more difficult for them to leave the community on their own. In 1895, the position of the zemstvo chief was introduced for increased supervision of the common people.

In August 1881, a decree was issued allowing regional and provincial authorities to impose a state of emergency in the region at their own discretion. At this time, the police could expel suspicious persons without trial or investigation. They also had the right to close educational institutions, newspapers and magazines, as well as industrial enterprises.

In the course of counter-reforms, control over secondary schools was tightened. From now on, children of lackeys, small shopkeepers and laundresses could not study in gymnasiums. In 1884, university autonomy was abolished. Tuition fees increased significantly, so few people could afford to get a higher education. Elementary schools were placed in the hands of the clergy. In 1882, censorship norms were strengthened. The authorities were now allowed to close any print publication at their own discretion.

National policy

Emperor Alexander III (Romanov) was famous for his radical nationalist views. During his reign, the persecution of the Jews intensified. Immediately after the assassination of Alexander II, unrest broke out throughout the country among the people of this nation, who lived below the Pale of Settlement. The newly minted emperor issued a decree on their eviction. The number of places for Jewish students in universities and grammar schools was also reduced.

At the same time, an active policy of Russification of the population was pursued. By order of the tsar, teaching in Russian was introduced in Polish universities and schools. Russified inscriptions began to appear on the streets of Finnish and Baltic cities. The influence of the Orthodox Church also increased in the country. The number of periodicals was increased, which published huge circulations of religious literature. The reign of Alexander III was marked by the construction of new Orthodox churches and monasteries. Restrictions were imposed on the rights of people of other religions and foreigners by the emperor.

Economic development of the country during the reign of Alexander

The emperor's policy is characterized not only by a large number of counter-reforms, but also by the rapid development of industry during the years of his reign. The successes were particularly outstanding in metallurgy. Russia was engaged in the production of pig iron and steel, in the Urals they were actively producing oil and coal. The pace of development was truly record-breaking. The government was involved in supporting domestic industrialists. It introduced new customs tariffs and duties for imported goods.

At the beginning of Alexander's reign, finance minister Bunge also carried out a tax reform, which abolished the poll tax. Instead of it, the apartment payment was introduced, depending on the size of the dwelling. Indirect taxation began to develop. Also, by order of Bunge, excise taxes were introduced on some goods: tobacco and vodka, sugar and oil.

On the initiative of the tsar, the redemption payments for the peasants were significantly reduced. According to tradition, during the years of his reign, commemorative coins of Alexander III were issued, dedicated to the coronation of the newly made sovereign. His portrait was printed only on silver ruble and gold five-ruble copies. Now they are considered quite rare and valuable for numismatists.

Foreign policy

After his death, Emperor Alexander 3 was called a peacemaker, since during his reign Russia did not enter any war. However, foreign policy during these years was quite dynamic. Industrial growth was largely supported by the active modernization of the army. By improving it, the emperor was able to reduce the number of soldiers and reduce the cost of their maintenance. As a rule, historians believe that the tsar's policies during the years of his reign contributed to the strengthening of Russia in the international arena and significantly increased its prestige.

In 1881, the emperor was able to negotiate neutrality with Germany and Austria-Hungary, with whom they also concluded an agreement on the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans. He pointed out that Russia had the right to control their eastern part: Bulgaria, which gained independence after the war of 1879. However, by 1886 it had lost its influence in this country.

In 1887, Alexander personally turned to the German Kaiser and was able to convince him not to declare war on France. In Central Asia, the policy of annexing border lands continued. During the years of the tsar's reign, the total area of ​​Russia increased by 430 thousand km². In 1891, the construction of a railway was started, which was supposed to connect the European part of the country with the Far East.

Conclusion of an alliance with France

The conclusion of a friendly alliance with France is considered an important merit of Alexander 3. Russia at that time needed reliable support. France, on the other hand, an alliance with another influential state was necessary in order to avoid war with Germany, which constantly claimed its part of the territories.

For a long time, relations between the two countries were cold. Republican France supported the revolutionaries in Russia and contributed to their struggle against the autocracy. However, Emperor Alexander managed to overcome such ideological differences. In 1887, France provided Russia with large cash loans. In 1891, their squadron of ships arrived at Kronstadt, where the emperor solemnly received the allied troops. In August of the same year, an official treaty of friendship between the two countries entered into force. Already in 1892, France and Russia agreed on the signing of a military convention. The countries pledged to help each other if they were attacked by Germany, Italy or Austria-Hungary.

Family and Children

Although the marriage between the spouses was concluded according to political agreements, according to the will of Romanov's father, Alexander 3 was a decent family man. Even before the engagement, he completely broke off relations with Princess Meshcherskaya. Throughout his marriage with Maria Feodorovna, he had no favorites or mistresses, which was a rarity among Russian emperors. He was a loving father, although he was distinguished by severity and exactingness. Maria Feodorovna gave birth to six children:

• Nikolai is the future last emperor of Russia.
• Alexander - the boy died of meningitis a year after birth.
• George - died in 1899 from tuberculosis.
• Xenia - married the Grand Duke, later, after the revolution, she was able to leave Russia with her mother.
• Mikhail - was shot by the Bolsheviks in Perm in 1918.
• Olga - after the revolution left Russia, married a military officer. Like her father, she was fond of painting and earned her a living.

The emperor was very unpretentious in everyday life, distinguished by modesty and frugality. Contemporaries believed that aristocracy was alien to him. Often the tsar dressed in simple and even shabby clothes. With his family, after accession to the throne, he settled in Gatchina. In Petersburg, they lived in the Anichkov Palace, since the Winter Tsar did not love. The emperor was engaged in collecting, was fond of painting. During his life, he collected so many works of art that they did not fit in the galleries of his palaces. After his death, Nicholas II donated most of his father's collection to the Russian Museum.

The emperor had a remarkable appearance. He was distinguished by his great growth and impressive physical strength. In his youth, he could easily bend coins with his hands or even break a horseshoe. However, the king's children did not inherit either his height or strength. It is noteworthy that the daughter of Nicholas II, the Grand Duchess Maria, who was large and strong from birth, looked like her grandfather.

In the photo, Alexander 3, together with his family, is resting in Livadia in the Crimea. The image was taken in May 1893.

Train wreck in 1888

In October 1888, the emperor and his family were returning by train after a vacation to St. Petersburg. Suddenly, near Kharkov, the train suddenly crashed and went off the rails. More than 20 passengers were killed and more than 60 people were seriously injured. Together with his wife and children, Alexander 3 was at the time of the disaster in a restaurant. None of them were injured, although the roof of the car could have collapsed on them. The Emperor held her on his shoulders until his family and other victims escaped from the rubble. It was officially announced that the disaster was due to technical problems and malfunctioning of the tracks, but some believed that this was a planned attempt on the members of the royal family.

Sickness and death of the emperor

And although immediately during the catastrophe, Emperor Alexander III was not injured, very soon he began to complain about the deterioration of his health. Frequent back pains began to bother him. Qualified doctors conducted a thorough examination and came to the conclusion that the king began to develop severe kidney disease, which arose due to excessive stress on his back. The emperor's illness progressed rapidly, he increasingly felt ill. In the winter of 1894, Alexander caught a bad cold and was never able to recover from his illness. In the fall, doctors diagnosed him with acute nephritis. The tsar, who was not even 50 years old, died in November 1894 at the Livadia Palace in the Crimea.

The years of the reign of Alexander III were controversially evaluated by both contemporaries and historians. His counter-reforms were able to temporarily stop the revolutionary movement in Russia. In 1887, the last unsuccessful attempt on the king's life took place. After that, until the beginning of the 20th century, there were no terrorist acts in the country at all. However, the problems that worried the masses were never resolved. Some scholars believe that it was partly the conservative policy of the penultimate Russian tsar that subsequently led to the numerous power crises that Emperor Nicholas II faced.

Ivan KRAMSKOY. Portrait of Alexander III

Alexander III Aleksandrovich (1845-1894), Russian emperor from 1881. Second son of Alexander II. In the first half of the 1980s, under the conditions of the growth of capitalist relations, he abolished the poll tax and lowered the redemption payments. From the 2nd half of the 80s. carried out "counter-reforms". Suppressed the revolutionary democratic and workers' movement, strengthened the role of the police and administrative arbitrariness. During the reign of Alexander III, the annexation of Central Asia to Russia was basically completed (1885), the Russian-French alliance was concluded (1891-1893).

Nikolay SVERCHKOV. Alexander III

Nikolay DMITRIEV-ORENBURGSKY. Portrait of Emperor Alexander III.

Nikolay Schilder. Portrait of Alexander III

Zabolotsky P.P. Alexander III

A. Sokolov_Alexander III and his wife Maria-Sophia-Frederica-Dagmara,

in orthodoxy Maria Fedorovna(1847-1928)

Initially, she was the bride of Tsarevich Nikolai Alexandrovich, the eldest son of Alexander II, who died in 1865. After his death, an affection arose between Dagmara and the Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich, who together looked after the dying Tsarevich. On June 11, 1866, Tsarevich Alexander decided to propose, which he wrote to his father on the same day. . Maria, life-loving and cheerful in character, was warmly received by the court and metropolitan society. Her marriage to Alexander, despite the fact that their relationship began under such mournful circumstances, turned out to be successful; in the course of almost thirty years of life together, the couple retained a sincere affection for each other.

Coronation.

Vladimir MAKOVSKY. Portrait of Empress Maria Feodorovna

Ivan KRAMSKOY. Portrait of Empress Maria Feodorovna

Maria Fyodorovna_Heinrich von Angeli

Konstantin MAKOVSKY. Portrait of Empress Maria Feodorovna

Reception volost elders Alexander III in the courtyard of the Petrovsky Palace in Moscow. Painting by I. Repin.

Sermon on the Mount 1889 Alexander III with his family. Ivan Makarov.

"The blessing of the Lord on you" The family of Alexander III before Christ. Makarov I.K.

Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna had 6 children:

Nikolay Alexandrovich(1868-1918) future emperor of Russia.

Alexander Alexandrovich(1869-1870)

Georgy Alexandrovich (1871-1899)

Ksenia Alexandrovna (1875-1960)

Mikhail Alexandrovich (1878-1918)

Olga Alexandrovna (1882-1960)

Last family photo, Livadia, Crimea, 1893

From left to right: Tsarevich Nicholas, Grand Duke George, Empress Maria Feodorovna, Grand Duchess Olga, Grand Duke Mikhail, Grand Duchess Xenia and Emperor Alexander III.

120 years ago, on November 1, 1894, in the Crimea, in Livadia, died at the age of 49, the Russian Emperor Alexander III, the 13th Tsar from the Romanov family, his father.

During the 13 years of the reign of Alexander III the Peacemaker, Russia did not participate in a single war, thanks to skillful state policy and diplomacy, the Russian Empire became a stronger and greater power than it was before his reign.

On the day of the death of Alexander III, Europe felt that it had lost an international arbiter who was always guided by the idea of ​​justice.

The cause of death of Alexander III was chronic nephritis, which led to damage to the heart and blood vessels. According to experts, the kidney disease arose after a railway accident, which hit the royal train at the Borki station, 50 kilometers from Kharkov in the fall of 1888. During a train crash, the roof collapsed in the royal carriage, and Tsar Alexander III, saving his family, held the roof on his shoulders until help arrived.

Emperor Alexander III ascended the throne on March 14, 1881, after the assassination of his father Alexander II.

On April 29, 1881, the emperor signed "Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy", who called on “all loyal subjects to serve with faith and truth to eradicate the vile sedition that dishonor the Russian land, - to the establishment of faith and morality, - to the good upbringing of children, - to the extermination of untruth and embezzlement, - to the establishment of order and truth in the operation of all institutions ".

A peasant bank was established in 1881 for the issuance of loans to peasants for the purchase of land, redemption of peasant allotments.

1882 - 1884 - the tax (tax) system was changed: abolished poll tax for the poorest classes, abolished inheritance tax and interest-bearing securities, increased taxation of trades. Protection of workers: the admission to factory work of minors and night work of adolescents and women is prohibited.

1881 - 82 - a commission for drafting laws of criminal and civil law was established.
Measures taken to expand the advantages of the local nobility, in 1885 a noble land bank was established, giving long-term loans to the noble landowners, the Ministry of Finance is tasked with creating land bank for all estates.

Public education. In 1884, the charter of a new university reform was adopted, which destroyed university self-government, students were not exempt from military service, military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps.
The primary school was transferred to the hands of the clergy, established. A circular has been issued about "cook's children" restricting higher education for children from the lower strata of society.

The Emperor was an avid collector and founded the Russian Museum... A rich collection of paintings, graphics, arts and crafts, sculptures, collected by Alexander III, was transferred to the Russian Museum.

From 1881 to 1895 the share of customs duties on imported goods increased from 19% to 31%, thus, Russian producers were protected from imported goods. A course has been set for the industrialization of Russia, for the creation of its own industry - this is not only an economic, but also a political fundamental task that constitutes the main direction in the system of internal patronage.

The deficits of the Russian state budget were replaced in 1881-87 by a tremendous excess of state revenues over expenditures. The ruble went gold! The main source of government revenues was indirect taxes; taxation items were increased (new taxes on gasoline, kerosene, matches). In 1881 - the apartment tax was introduced in Russia and taxation rates have been raised - excise taxes on alcohol, tobacco and sugar have been raised.

Emperor Alexander III loved Georgian, and, and knew a lot about them. During the reign of Alexander III, expensive foreign wines were ousted from the domestic market of the Russian Empire by domestic wines. Winemaking of Crimea received good sales markets, high-quality ones were presented at world wine exhibitions.

During the reign of Alexander III, the Russian Empire became a strong naval power. The Russian fleet took 3rd place in the world after England and France. 114 new warships were launched, including 17 battleships and 10 armored cruisers, the total displacement of the Russian fleet reached 300 thousand tons.

Emperor Alexander III uttered his famous phrase "Russia has only two loyal allies - the army and the navy." Over the past 100 years, the situation with Russia's loyal allies has not changed at all.

The main directions of Alexander III's foreign policy were:
1. Strengthening influence in the Balkans. As a result Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 Bulgaria was liberated in 1879 from the 500-year Turkish yoke.

2. Search for reliable allies. In 1881, German Chancellor Bismarck signed a secret Austro-Russian-German treaty "Union of Three Emperors", which provided for the neutrality of each of the parties in the event that one of the countries was in a war with the 4th side. In 1882, secretly from Russia, Bismarck entered into a "triple alliance" - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy against Russia and France, which provided for military assistance to each other in case of hostilities with Russia or France. In 1887, the Russian-German "customs war": Germany did not provide a loan to Russia and increased duties on Russian bread and created advantages for the import of American grain into Germany. In response, Russia raised duties on imported German goods: iron, coal, ammonia, steel.

3. Maintaining peaceful relations with all countries. The secret union of France and Russia. France of the 80s saw Russia as its defender and savior from Germany. A grandiose parade in honor of the first visit of Alexander III to France, a ceremonial reception of the Russian squadron in Toulon, and a return visit of the French squadron to Kronstadt in the summer of 1891.

4. Establishment of borders in the south of Central Asia, after the annexation of Kazakhstan, the Kokand Khanate, the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva Khanate. During the reign of Alexander III, the territory of the Russian Empire increased by 430,000 square meters. km.

5. The consolidation of Russia in the new territories of the Far East. In 1891, Russia began construction of the "Great Siberian Railway" - 7 thousand km railway line Chelyabinsk - Omsk - Irkutsk - Khabarovsk - Vladivostok.

For the maintenance of European peace, Alexander III was called the Peacemaker. During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage a single war, and "the Russian nation, under the just and peaceful rule of its emperor, enjoyed security, this supreme good of society and an instrument of true greatness."